Early observations were reported in the 16th century about the scurvy-preventive action of pine needles and the curative effects of lemon juice. Two centuries later Lind described in detail the symptoms of the disease and its prevention and cure by the inclusion of fresh fruit and vegetables in the diet.
He also demonstrated that oranges and lemons were more effective than cider. Captain Cook made use of this information in his voyages and in the 18th and 19th centuries the Dutch and the English navy adopted the same scurvy-preventive measures Rosenberg, ; Sherman, In the first decades of the 20th century the existence of food factors, essential for the treatment of certain diseases, was at last widely accepted.
Factor A, found in butter and liver, was effective for the prevention and cure of xerophthalmia. Factor B, obtained from rice polishing, was a cure for beri-beri. The Ebers Papyrus of about BC gives an account of a disease likely to be scurvy. The suggested treatment of this disease is to eat onions, which we now know contain small amounts of vitamin C. With limited food, scurvy breaks out amongst his men. The native Indians suggest a remedy — a drink made by soaking the bark of a local tree.
The remedy works. He divides them into 6 pairs, giving each group different additions to their basic diet. Centuries ago, sailors experienced such a lack first-hand: swollen and bleeding gums, loose teeth, hemorrhaging under the skin, and slowed healing of wounds. What we now know as vitamin C was in short supply on most ships, and human bodies reacted by developing the condition known as scurvy. Death could, and often did, quickly follow, thousands of miles away from otherwise life-sustaining provisions.
Scurvy had long been the scourge of those who sailed for extended distances without fresh food and supplies, with the first clear-cut descriptions of the malady appearing in the medieval records of the European Crusades. Toward the end of the 15th century, scurvy was cited as the major cause of disability and mortality among sailors on long sea voyages.
Although Danish mariners were long acquainted with the condition, and included lemons and oranges in their marine stores, it was not until that scurvy was recognized in the British medical community at large as directly related to dietary deficiency.
In , William Stark, a young British physician, began a series of experiments on diet and nutrition, using himself as the experimental subject. After consuming only bread and water for 31 days, Stark added other foods to his diet one by one, including olive oil, figs, goose meat, and milk. In two months, Stark recorded that his gums were red and swollen, bleeding easily to the touch.
Seven months later he died, possibly from scurvy, and likely from the cumulative effects of malnutrition. At the time, no one, including Lind, knew of the existence of ascorbic acid, which would eventually become commonly known as vitamin C.
Vitamin C enables the body to efficiently use carbohydrates, fats, and protein. Because vitamin C acts as an antioxidant — a nutrient that chemically binds and neutralizes the tissue-damaging effects of substances known as free radicals — it is vital to the growth and health of bones, teeth, gums, ligaments, and blood vessels. Vitamin C is found in various foods, including citrus fruits such as oranges, lemons, and grapefruit; in green vegetables such as spinach, broccoli, and cabbage; and in tomatoes and potatoes.
Food processing may degrade or destroy vitamin C, as can exposure to air, drying, salting, cooking especially in copper pots , or processing. Freezing does not usually cause loss of vitamin C unless foods are stored for a very long time. In modern times, access to fresh fruits and vegetables is common, rendering full-blown cases of vitamin C deficiency relatively rare.
As early as , A. Hirsch expressed the suspicion that scurvy is due to a deficiency in a nutritional factor. Hirsch attempted to support his hypothesis by a historical study of the known scurvy epidemics. Toward the end of the 19th century, the incidence of scurvy slowly declined.
Fresh vegetables, citrus fruits, potatoes and sauerkraut were major contributing factors to this improvement. In order to identify the nutritional factor postulated by Hirsch, A. Holst and F. Frohlich undertook animal feeding studies in
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